What defines a great orchestral work? Is it a piece’s enduring expressive impact? Its compositional achievements? Find answers in this lecture, which tracks the evolution of the orchestra from its beginnings in accompanying operas to its flowering as a free-standing artistic medium. Then define the stylistic eras you’ll encounter in this course, survey the seven predominant musical forms used in orchestral writing, and look at orchestral “genres” such as the symphony, concerto, and tone poem.
Antonio Vivaldi ranks as one of the great geniuses of concerto writing, and The Four Seasons is one of his most enduring masterpieces. Start by exploring Vivaldi’s life and musical innovations in Baroque-era Venice. Then, delve into the four separate concertos of The Four Seasons, depicting humanity’s relationship to nature. Using extensive musical examples, study Vivaldi’s dynamic use of the solo violin and orchestral textures to evoke the characteristics of spring, summer, autumn, and winter.
Follow Bach’s career as he navigates the challenges of musical life in Baroque Germany. Also learn about the writing, loss, and rediscovery of the six beloved Brandenburg Concerti. In the Brandenburg No. 2’s opening movement, discover Bach’s brilliant interpretation of ritornello form, using four solo instruments in complex interactions with each other and the orchestra. Study key passages of the second-movement “nocturne” and the majestic concluding fugue, with its echoes of the ritornello theme.
In reviewing contemporary criticism of Bach’s music, reflect on the ways in which the very originality and complexity we prize in Bach made him controversial in his own time. Highlighting the first two movements of the E Major violin concerto, see how Bach pushes the limits of both ritornello and passacaglia forms, transcending the episodic nature of these forms to create a compelling sense of dramatic narrative.
Learn about Haydn’s “on the job” musical education, his illustrious life in the court of Prince Nikolaus Esterházy, and the creation of his celebrated “London” symphonies. In his great, final symphony, grasp important elements of Haydn’s masterful symphonic writing. Study his creation of contrast and variety from a minimum of thematic strands, the lilting elegance and beauty of the inner movements, and the intertwining themes of the finale.
Consider Mozart’s relationship with the piano concerto, where his urge to self-expressive originality became a prime moving force. Explore the jarring opening theme, Mozart’s use of the piano as an “operatic” character, and the ways in which he breaks the conventions of Classical style. Uncover the structure of the exquisite larghetto and of the final theme and variations, ending the work in a dramatic dialogue between soloist and orchestra.
Ponder Mozart’s astounding facility for composing, as he routinely “wrote” masterworks entirely in his head. Continue with the circumstances surrounding the creation of his renowned final symphonies, amid great personal hardships. In the “Jupiter” symphony, take apart the thematic structure of the first and final movements, grasping Mozart’s extraordinary inventiveness with sonata form, which unites “masculine” and “feminine” melodic material and a huge diversity of musical interplay in a joyously expressive whole.
Beethoven’s Eroica symphony is deeply linked to critical events in his life. Reflect on his identification and later disillusionment with Napoleon, and his “heroic” self-reinvention following the overwhelming trauma of his hearing loss. Study the narrative arc of the Third Symphony and the brilliant musical means by which Beethoven expresses heroic struggle in the first movement, followed by death, rebirth, and final apotheosis, as the composer dramatically reconceives both himself and the spirit of Western music.
Consider Beethoven’s explosive impact on Vienna as a pianist and the thought process that led to his innovations in this concerto. See how he creates a melodically splendorous opening movement by introducing the solo piano alone and altering the traditional “exposition” form. Across all three movements, witness how Beethoven uses the full symphonic resources of the orchestra while establishing the piano as a full and equal expressive partner.
Learn about three critical moments where Beethoven “reinvented” himself in the face of terrible hardships, leading to his redefining the genre of the symphony in this historic, monumental work. Study the Ninth Symphony’s musical architecture and dramatic narrative, from its depiction of the struggle between the heroic and the tragic to the final resolution of that struggle in a utopian vision of the future, realized in the celestial “Ode to Joy.”
In the brief life of Franz Schubert, contemplate the composer’s astonishing creative output, the interconnections between Schubert and Beethoven, and the effect on Schubert’s music of his tragic ordeal with syphilis. Savor the musical treasures of the “grand” Ninth Symphony, including the melodically original introduction, the vivacious scherzo, and the majestic finale, fusing Classical lyricism with tremendous expressive power.
Mendelssohn’s record as a musical prodigy—surpassing even Mozart—played an ironic role in his later life. Regarding this symphony, track the “Mendelssohn problem,” the controversial perception that his mature style showed an increasing conservatism. Through the four movements of this work, find the heart of Mendelssohn’s extraordinary musical voice—its lyric beauty, formal lucidity, and ideal of communicative directness.
Trace the movement of Romanticism as it shaped Robert Schumann. Also learn about the “program” or storytelling symphony, and about Schumann’s fascination with the landscape and history of Germany’s Rhineland. In his Third Symphony, experience the rich textures of Schumann’s impressions of the Rhine and the life surrounding it, highlighting the warm grandeur of the opening theme, the fourth movement’s evocation of Cologne’s Cathedral, and the glowing, exuberant finale.
Investigate the difficult unfolding of Brahms’s career, complicated by Schumann’s early pronouncement that Brahms was the new messiah of German music. In the celebrated Fourth Symphony, track Brahms’s genius in the opening movement, with its endless metamorphosis of a single musical idea, and in the final passacaglia, where he uses a restricting, Baroque-era form as the foundation of a resplendent Romantic vision.
First, trace important elements of Brahms’s development, including his fanatical perfectionism, the damaging circumstances of his early musical life, and his bond with the violinist Joseph Joachim, who played a critical role in the creation of the Violin Concerto. Among the concerto’s riches, hear Brahms’s brilliant structuring of the opening movement, giving the violin the chance to gloriously elaborate the main themes. Savor the aria-like lyricism of the adagio and the hot-blooded gypsy heart of the finale.
The musical content of Tchaikovsky’s Fourth Symphony, mirroring events in his life, is directly explained in his letters. As background, reflect on his difficult youth, his disastrous marriage, and the pivotal support of his longtime benefactress. Through his letters, chart the symphony’s narrative “story,” from the struggle against relentless fate in the first movement, told through dramatically contrasting musical material, to the passionately affirmative finale, which incorporates a deeply symbolic Russian folk song.
Here, investigate key elements of Tchaikovsky’s musical sensibility: his adherence to Western compositional principles, his Slavic temperament, and his dazzling melodic gifts. In the Violin Concerto’s opening, hear his soaring use of the solo instrument and his unusual interpretation of sonata form, allowing him to bask in the central theme through creative restatement and variations. Then, enjoy the pyrotechnical rondo, a supreme achievement in violin writing.
Written by the “father” of Czech music, the grand symphonic poem Má Vlast evokes Bohemia’s landscape, history, and people. Learn about Smetana’s life in turbulent political times, and his role in the “musical nationalism” that sought an authentic Czech musical style. Focusing on four of the six movements, hear Smetana’s extraordinary tonal “painting,” his precise musical evocation of historical events, the great Vlatava River, and the majesty of the Bohemian countryside.
Another Czech icon, Dvorák melded the forms of Classicism with the expressive thrust and nationalist spirit of Romanticism. In the symphony’s opening, study the tonal shifts between major and minor—a hallmark of Czech folk music—as well as the composer’s evocative use of birdsong. Discover Dvorák’s unique voice in the enigmatic expressive extremes of the funeral march, the singular beauty of the third movement, and the melodically compelling theme and variations.
Learn about Dvorák’s life in 1890s New York and the origins of this superlative work, inspired by the ‘cello writing and symphonic textures of Victor Herbert’s second ‘cello concerto. Explore unforgettable passages and personal meanings in the Dvorák concerto, including the solemnity and lyric passion of the opening, the idyllic second theme, and the intimate significance to the composer of the adagio and the concerto’s final moments.
Nicolai Rimsky-Korsakov played a pivotal role in the development of Russian concert music in the 19th century. Learn about his unusual entry into Russian musical life, his vast influence as a teacher, and the literary base of Scheherazade. In this tour-de-force of program music, study the musical “voices” of the Persian princess Scheherazade, the despotic Sultan Shahryar, and the sonic unfolding of four exotic Persian folk tales.
Strauss’s majestic tone poem is based on the philosophical masterwork of Friedrich Nietzsche. Begin by tracing Strauss’s musical education, his points of connection with Nietzsche, and the philosophical underpinnings of Nietzsche’s work. In Strauss’s musical rendering, grasp the structure of the famous “Nature theme” and follow Strauss’s interpretation of eight “sermons” from Nietzsche’s original, dramatizing the sage Zarathustra’s quest to enlighten and elevate humanity.
This groundbreaking work fuses the musical language of Romanticism with an entirely modern expressive content. Explore Mahler’s cultural milieu (including the influence of Freud and the ethos of Expressionism) as he develops the symphony as a medium for philosophical/spiritual contemplations. Track the Fifth Symphony’s unusual musical narrative, which depicts the rituals of death and the progressive states of the grieving process—its penetrating evocation of sadness, grief, intimate serenity, and ultimate rebirth.
Rachmaninoff’s music is controversial, both for its independence from the modernism of his times and for its popularity in the face of criticism from scholars. In this symphony, investigate the opening melodic idea, as it ingeniously infuses successive themes throughout the work. Experience Rachmaninoff’s richly beautiful melodic art and orchestration, and grasp his brilliant thematic “architecture,” linking each movement to preceding elements.
Debussy’s revolutionary music flowed from his fascination with timbres and colors of sound, as well as from the movement to create an authentically French music that followed the Franco-Prussian War. In La Mer (The Sea), enter the world of Debussy’s dazzling musical language; his sensuous instrumental textures depicting the shimmering play of light and color, the surging motion and awesome natural force of the oceans.
Created for the legendary Ballets Russes, this trailblazing score was the single most influential musical work of its time. Learn about Stravinsky’s development as a composer, his “discovery” by the theater impresario Diaghilev, and the genesis of the Rite. In the work’s two parts, see how Stravinsky incarnates Bronze Age tribal rituals and the creative power of Spring, by studying his use of musical effects including “accumulation,” asymmetrical rhythmic accents, and bitonal sonorities.
As a prodigy who began playing the piano at age two, Camille Saint-Saëns’s musical life spanned the decades of the post-Beethoven era to the beginning of the jazz era. Learn why Saint-Saëns—one of the most popular composers of his time—is often misrepresented as an arch-conservative who never lived up to his potential, and examine how his Danse macabre achieves its intentionally devilish effect. Conclude with an analysis of his four-movement Symphony no. 3 in C Minor, a piece generally considered his great orchestral masterwork.
Holst’s popular symphonic suite enchants through its exquisite orchestration, sheer tonal beauty, and expressive directness. Your investigation assesses the character of Holst the man, his music, and the astrological basis of this work’s conception. In the suite’s seven “mood pictures,” identify each movement’s core thematic material and the way each depicts the zodiacal character of the individual planets, from the warlike fury of ”Mars” to the ineffable mysticism of ”Neptune.”
In approaching this extraordinary work, trace the development of American concert music and the economic, social, and political reasons it emerged only in the 20th century. Learn also about Copland’s influences and his desire to create a distinctly American musical voice. In the concert version of this ballet score, study the elements of Copland’s unique style—his widely spaced melodies, “Stravinskyan” rhythms, and folklorist colorings—movingly evoking a rural couple’s rite of passage into married life.
The writing of Shostakovich’s Fifth Symphony was inextricably linked to the horrific political repression in Russia under Stalin and the terror of the composer’s condemnation by the Soviet authorities. Grasp his philosophical-artistic triumph in this symphony—its menacing representation of brutality in the opening, its impassioned third movement, and psychologically harrowing finale, communicating through music what could not be spoken without risking death or exile.
Track the murderous postwar purges by the Soviet government, Shostakovich’s second political condemnation, and the writing of the Tenth Symphony in the wake of Stalin’s death. In the symphony’s metaphoric confrontation between the artist and the despot, experience Shostakovich’s self-revelation in the first movement, his wrenching depiction of Stalin, and the poignant recurrence of his own musical “signature”—its implacable, visceral proclamation that, after everything, “I am alive!”
Finally, reflect on the rich scope of the orchestral literature. In concentrated excerpts, taste the greatness of Hindemith’s Mathis der Maler and of symphonies by Bizet, Prokofiev, William Walton, and Ralph Vaughn Williams. Conclude with Professor Greenberg’s proposals for surmounting the survival challenges facing modern orchestras—the specific actions available to orchestral managements, conductors, composers, the media, and the public itself in seeding new music and safeguarding the magnificent orchestral tradition.
