Our word “medieval” comes from the Latin terms medium and aevum, which mean “middle age.” Neglected by some and romanticized by others, the period of the Middle Ages is important for understanding the triumphs and struggles of Christians in Europe and the Mediterranean world during the thousand-year period between the decline of the Roman Empire and the emergence of modern Europe. In this lecture, Dr. W. Robert Godfrey will offer insight into the historical complexities of the Middle Ages and will explain the approach that this series will take as we explore this important era in church history.
Emperor Justinian I and Pope Gregory I stand out as two of the most significant figures in the centuries of transition that marked the early Middle Ages. As the vestiges of Roman culture and institutions continued to fade or be reinvented, the inhabitants of the Mediterranean world looked for leaders who could offer them a sense of continuity with the past and direction for the future. In the midst of this uncertain climate, Justinian and Gregory contributed to the development of the state and the church in ways that would influence medieval life and culture for generations to come.
Around 600, as Gregory I labored in Rome for the growth and development of Christianity in Western Europe, an Arabian trader named Muhammad began to wrestle with religious questions and arrive at answers that were very different from the teachings of the Christian church. Though neither knew it, each man’s influence would extend far beyond his lifetime: Gregory’s, through the missionary efforts that would bring all of Europe under Christian influence; and Muhammad’s, through the zeal of his followers who would establish Islam as a major religion. As the sixth century transitioned into the seventh, events were being set in motion that would profoundly influence the political, cultural, and religious landscape of Europe and the Mediterranean world.
The early centuries of church history stand out as a time of striking unity. It is unrealistic to look upon this time as a golden age of Christianity due to the many challenges it faced from both within and without. Yet, for several hundred years the church in the Roman world managed to maintain a united stance and respond to challenges with one voice. As time passed, certain cultural, theological, and organizational differences began to test the bonds between east and west. Torn apart by the effects of new controversies and old rivalries, the medieval church eventually found itself to be irrevocably divided.
As the Middle Ages progressed, the Roman Catholic Church became one of the most powerful institutions in Western Europe. People responded to the church’s growing influence in a number of ways. Many supported the church, considering it to be God’s ordained means of governing medieval society. Certain political figures voiced opposition to the church’s influence, contending that the pope’s authority was over spiritual matters and that he had no right to interfere in politics and other societal affairs. Others, especially the common people, expressed their concern over corrupt practices and mistaken beliefs that were becoming increasingly common within certain sectors of the church. While the twelfth century represented the height of the church’s power, it also foreshadowed dramatic changes that would take place centuries later.
Few incidents in the history of the church are as controversial as the Crusades. The tragic loss of life that resulted from this movement has, sadly, discredited the Christian faith in the eyes of many. Today, Christians are sometimes uncertain about how they should view or react to this chapter in history. In this lecture, Dr. Godfrey will offer valuable insight about how Christians can best understand and learn from this dramatic period in the church’s past.
So far we have studied several notable events and movements that took place in the high Middle Ages. In addition to being an era of significant social, political, and cultural developments, this era also marked an important chapter in the theology, practices, and influence of the church. In this lecture, Dr. Godfrey will examine the life and time of Pope Innocent III as a case study in what the medieval church believed and how it functioned during the wondrous twelfth century.
For nearly two millennia, many Christians have chosen to express their piety through ascetic living. Though the roots of monasticism existed long before, the sixth-century monk Benedict of Nursia is considered to be the founding father of the medieval monastic movements. Benedict’s charter, known as the Benedictine Rule, outlined key principles of holiness and self-denial for communities of monks and nuns who were committed to the values of poverty, chastity, and obedience to God. However, later generations did not always show the same degree of commitment and devotion as their predecessors. In response, certain influential leaders responded to corruption and decline by calling for a return to Benedict’s rigid standards. While returning to the rigor of the past, these leaders also envisioned new ways for monks to carry out their mission within a changing world.
Medieval Scholasticism is often seen today as being speculative and of little practical value. In some cases, this critique may be warranted. However, this movement nevertheless helped to create an environment of thoughtful reflection and study that nurtured some of the greatest thinkers of the Middle Ages. As we turn our attention to a few of the most prominent philosophers and theologians of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, we will begin to see the familiar contours of questions, answers, and ideas that are still influential in our day.
As the Middle Ages progressed, certain issues remained unresolved. Second to none in terms of its importance to the medieval church was the question of the pope’s authority. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the papal office faced unique challenges from secular authorities, from rival popes, and from clergy who sought to consolidate the church’s power within ecumenical councils. As different popes succumbed to and overcame these challenges, the papacy found itself sometimes losing ground, sometimes gaining ground, and always adapting to new realities within the church and society.
The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries represented an era of significant change in the Medieval world. In the East, these centuries witnessed the final decline and collapse of the Byzantine Empire. Meanwhile, institutions in the West continued to develop and flourish. While European monarchs labored to build up their power and prestige, the pope continued to increase his authority over the church. At the same time, an influx of new ideas had ushered in a season of considerable academic achievement. As Europe began to establish its first universities, talented Scholastics appeared who dramatically shaped the trajectory of Christian thought.
As the Middle Ages continued to wind down in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, a diverse array of movements continued to exercise influence inside and outside the church. Amidst the backdrop of great Scholastic thinkers, other leaders appeared, advocating a vision of the Christian life that was driven more by the heart than by the head. Others responded to Scholasticism by looking to the ancient writings of Greece and Rome for inspiration. As Western scholars became increasingly proficient in classical languages and ancient texts, Christians inherited a variety of tools and resources to help them better understand the church, the world around them, and the words of Scripture.
As the church continued to consolidate its power and define its beliefs, it did not always act and speak with one voice. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, certain churchmen began to speak out against the corrupt practices and unbiblical doctrines that had become increasingly common within the medieval church. Emphasizing the authority of the Bible and a life of genuine piety, these leaders quickly gained a large following among the spiritually hungry common people. Though these reform movements were fiercely opposed by the church, they helped to lay the groundwork for profound spiritual changes that would come in later centuries.
As the year 1500 arrived, Europe was in the midst of profound changes. The conditions, attitudes, and institutions that had characterized the Middle Ages were gradually giving way to new movements and developments. The discovery of unknown lands across the Atlantic accompanied an explosion of exploration and trade. The emergence of powerful monarchies in Germany, France, and Spain introduced complex new dynamics to European politics. In the aftermath of the Renaissance, interest in learning and the study of ancient texts ran high, and the recent invention of Gutenberg’s printing press facilitated the spread of ideas at an unprecedented rate. Amid this prevailing climate of change, a consensus was forming among many Europeans that certain beliefs and practices of the church were in dire need of reform.
Extraordinary events often begin with seemingly ordinary people. A promising son of a typical middle-class family at the turn of the sixteenth century, Martin Luther had no other ambition than to know God’s Word. As Martin applied himself to that pursuit, God was equipping and preparing this young monk for an astonishing future. In this message, Dr. Godfrey explores the circumstances leading up to the events of 1517 that forever shaped the trajectories of Martin Luther’s life and of the Christian church.
It is often through trial and adversity that God shapes His people the most. After publishing what he thought to be an unremarkable critique of corruption in the sale of indulgences, Martin Luther found himself at the forefront of a controversy that he neither expected nor desired. In the years that followed, Luther repeatedly returned to Scripture for guidance and instruction, and his exposition of God’s Word soon put him at odds with both the political and religious elites of his day.
In response to Martin Luther’s tireless ministry, more Christians came to recognize the need to reform the church, and reform movements began to spring up throughout Europe. As Luther continued to serve as a primary preacher and spokesman of the Reformation, he faced the question of how to interact with those whose visions of reform differed from his own. When the early Protestant leaders weighed the possibility of uniting their efforts, they grappled with challenges that still confront Christians today.
Western Christianity changed forever during Martin Luther’s lifetime. Profoundly gifted and profoundly flawed, Luther had an enduring desire to proclaim “Jesus Christ and him crucified.” As a result of Luther’s untiring efforts, Christian leaders across Europe sought to bring all of life into accordance with God’s Word, often achieving very different results. Of the many expressions of Christianity that emerged during this time, the Anabaptists puzzled and distressed Catholics and Protestants alike. In this message, Dr. Godfrey discusses the enduring legacies of both Martin Luther and the Anabaptist movement.
Perhaps there is no greater testimony to the enduring nature of Luther’s reforms than the fact that the Reformation continued to gather strength after his death. As Lutheranism took firm root in Germany, other areas in Europe also became centers of vigorous reform. Not least of these was the Swiss city of Geneva, where the Reformed branch of Protestantism took shape under the persistent labors of William Farel and John Calvin.
God excels at overturning human expectations. When John Calvin left Geneva in 1538, he assumed that he would not be back. Content to study and minister in relative obscurity in Strasbourg, Calvin was unwittingly being equipped to return to Geneva and carry on the task of Reformation that he and William Farel had begun there. During the years ahead, John Calvin would leave a permanent mark upon both this city and the Reformed branch of Christianity.
It is common to think of John Calvin primarily in terms of his intellectual accomplishments, perhaps regarding him as little more than a brain working in Geneva. However, a closer look at Calvin’s theology reveals that his scholarly activity was driven by a deeply pastoral desire to strengthen believers in their faith. In this message, Dr. Godfrey explores some of the focal points of Calvin’s theology, taking note of how Calvin differed from his Roman Catholic contemporaries and why these differences matter.
Many who desired to reform the Roman Catholic Church eventually split off from it. However, energetic reforms also emerged within the Catholic Church, addressing moral and spiritual problems without forming a separate ecclesiastical body. While the Catholic reformers shared many of the same concerns as the Protestant reformers, their vision of ecclesiastical renewal ultimately took the Catholic Church in a very different direction than that taken by the Protestant churches.
As the teachings of the Protestant Reformation spread throughout Europe, Protestant movements appeared in many different countries. In some areas, the political authorities quickly established Protestantism as the official religion. In nations like France and Spain, the Reformation was eventually suppressed by relentless persecution. However, persecution was not always able to extinguish the Protestant cause. In the case of Scotland, the Reformation took root in spite of government opposition, largely through the diligent and persistent ministry of John Knox.
The success or failure of the Reformation in a particular region often depended on whether the ruler of the region supported or opposed it. However, the Dutch Reformation was an exception to this tendency. Though bitterly opposed by the Habsburg monarchs, Protestantism attracted a large following in the Low Countries. As religious and political tension led to upheaval and war, the courage and persistence of the Dutch people prepared the way for a free Dutch Republic and the rise of the Dutch Reformed Church.
When times of trial and persecution come to an end, the absence of external tension may create opportunities for internal strife and division. With the threat of Spanish invasion no longer uniting the Dutch people, controversy surrounding the teachings of the late Jacobus Arminius began to polarize the Reformed churches in the Netherlands. At the resulting Synod of Dort, church leaders responded to this crisis by officially adopting the doctrinal positions that have become one of the distinguishing marks of Reformed Christianity.
The Reformation was a turning point in the history of the church. And in its aftermath, Protestants wanted to continue along the trajectory set by the Reformers. They sought to further develop a theology which was reformed according to Scripture, and to continue to purify, discipline, and grow the church. Accordingly, there were many internal challenges facing the fledgling Reformed church. And in addition to these internal challenges, there were many external challenges. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey will explain the major challenges that faced the Reformed church as it sought to be a faithful witness in an ever-changing world.
One might think of scholastic theology as dry, nitpicky, and irrelevant, but that couldn’t be further from the truth. Many scholastic theologians were learned, lively, and deeply concerned not just about orthodoxy, but also piety. Although their writings are often challenging, Christians today can benefit greatly from these past saints. In this lecture, Dr. Godfrey will survey the scholastic movement, pointing out its importance and relevance for the church—past and present.
Inward apathy toward the Lord masked by outward obedience is a real and constant threat in any church. Keenly aware of this danger, the Puritans zealously proclaimed the importance of heart-felt affection for the Lord. They sought to nourish genuine faith and piety especially through passionate preaching, Bible studies, and conscientious Sabbath observance. Though frequently portrayed as joyless legalists, we will see in this lesson that in reality, Puritans were more frequently characterized by their pursuit of joyful, sincere devotion to the Lord.
During the mid-seventeenth century, England was embroiled in a civil war between the king’s forces and those of parliament. The aftermath of this conflict saw political change and much theological reflection. It was during this time period that the Westminster Assembly met to reform doctrine, church government, and worship. In this lecture, you will study this tumultuous time period, focusing on the connection between the Puritans and politics. You will also come to a better understanding of the climate within which the Westminster Assembly took place.
Many Reformed churches today trace their roots back to the Puritans, and have even adopted as their standards the Westminster Confession and Catechisms. However, there are two areas where most of those churches differ from their Puritan predecessors: worship and eschatology. In this lecture, Dr. Godfrey explains why the Puritans worshipped the way did, and how they understood the book of Revelation.
Assurance of one’s salvation is an important part of Protestant faith, and one of the many marks that sharply distinguishes it from Roman Catholicism. In the seventeenth century, however, many within Puritan circles struggled with this issue. In this lecture, Dr. Godfrey will explain this struggle. He will also spend considerable time discussing the Puritan understanding of conversion, and will show that the very idea of conversion has changed dramatically over the past few centuries.
When the Puritans came to the New World, they had no intention of establishing a new religion. What they did want to do, however, was bring their old world religious ideal into reality. Despite the inherent difficulties in their new environment, the Puritans found some measure of early success. But as time passed, internal challenges added to the external. In this lecture, Dr. Godfrey will summarize the religious foundations of the American colonies, looking especially at the Puritans’ desire to maintain a pure church.
The Enlightenment had a profound effect on Western thought. During this period, some sought to reconcile the Christian faith with modern thought, while others tried to cut themselves completely from their Christian moorings. But even those who set out to uproot the Christian influence upon society ended up adopting suspiciously similar ideas. In this lecture, Dr. Godfrey will show us how the church navigated through the Enlightenment, pointing out the different responses to this new challenge.
The religious climate in England in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries was cold and dry. Onto this barren landscape came George Whitefield and John Wesley, whose powerful preaching and novel methods played an important role in kindling hearts and stirring religious affection. In this lecture, Dr. Godfrey will introduce both of these men, the spiritual context within which they worked, and the results of their ministries.
The Great Awakening was a time of great religious interest that began in New England and spread throughout the American colonies. It was spearheaded by the great preacher George Whitefield, and aided by America’s most prominent pastor and theologian, Jonathan Edwards. In this lecture, Dr. Godfrey will explain the history of this influential movement, focusing on its key figures. He will also look back to England and revisit the ministry and influence of John Wesley during this time period.
Jonathan Edwards has been called by some the most brilliant American who ever lived. He played an integral part in the Great Awakening, and his towering intellect was matched only by his religious devotion. In this lecture, join Dr. Godfrey as he explains the life and impact of one of the most influential individuals in American history.
Coming at the close of the eighteenth century, the American and French Revolutions had an enormous impact on subsequent history. While both movements were revolutionary in nature, you will see how different their aim and character were. In this lecture, Dr. Godfrey will highlight some of the key points of these events, showing especially how the American Revolution affected American church history.
The ideas and events of the nineteenth century produced effects that can be felt down to this day. In this introductory lesson, Dr. Godfrey shows us why the history of the church in this century still matters and gives us five categories to analyze and understand it for ourselves.
Ideas have consequences, and the intellectual changes that were taking place in Europe would set the stage for the entire nineteenth century. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey explores those ideas and how they began to expand beyond the continent of Europe and influence American religious life.
The American Revolution and the Second American Revolution will have a significant impact on the development of the church in America. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey explains how these revolutions made the churches in America different from the churches in Europe and led to the Second Awakening.
The Second Great Awakening was a period of increased evangelism and social reform. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey explains how the Second Great Awakening would influence society and introduces its important theologians.
Charles Finney believed revival could be broken down to a science. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey introduces Finney’s methods, his many critics, and the nature of true revival.
Cults flourished in America during the nineteenth century. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey explores where these cults came from, who started them, what they taught, and why they are so dangerous.
The Presbyterian church experienced the revival that swept across America by balancing the desire for vital religion with the desire for sound theology. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey explains why this was a critical process in the development of the Presbyterian church during nineteenth-century America.
The Civil War not only divided the nation, it divided the church. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey looks at the history of the Presbyterian church through the Civil War and the changing trajectory of the church in America more broadly.
The idea that Christianity is incompatible with science is false. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey exposes this falsehood by exploring the four major fields of scientific endeavor that were attacking Christianity and contributing to the growing pessimism of the nineteenth century.
Roman Catholics reacted to the mounting pressures of the nineteenth century by reasserting papal authority. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey shows how the declarations of the First Vatican Council create a dilemma for today’s Roman Catholic scholar.
Revival spread throughout Europe by men who faithfully preached the gospel. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey introduces us to these men and perhaps the most important thinker for the Christian in the modern day, Abraham Kuyper.
Abraham Kuyper did not ignore the realities that the church faced in the modern world. In this last lesson, Dr. Godfrey maps out Kuyper’s vision of a pluralistic society that would not hinder our freedom to be Christians.
The twentieth century was a remarkable century, encompassing the best and the worst of human history. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey introduces some of its major events and the way the church adapted to its problems and opportunities.
It was an age in which empires rose and fell and in which the reach of the gospel spread. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey examines a century of great missionary endeavor and those who made it possible.
Protestants throughout the nineteenth century stood united as evangelicals, but as this term began to lose meaning, a replacement term was needed. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey examines the shift in American evangelicalism and the battle between modernists and fundamentalists.
God has used men to passionately defend the historic Christian faith throughout the history of the church. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey introduces J. Gresham Machen, a man used by God to fight the tides of twentieth-century liberalism.
The controversy involving J. Gresham Machen in the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America is only an example of the growing tensions and rapid changes that roiled churches across the country. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey discusses the struggles within American churches and the beginnings of Pentecostalism.
Aimee Semple McPherson was the most famous woman in America during the 1920s. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey discusses the life, ministry, and complexity of Aimee Semple McPherson as a prototypical example of Pentecostalism.
Despite its humble beginnings, Pentecostalism has a wide and growing influence in the world. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey systematically examines and responds to the theology and appeal of Pentecostalism.
Fundamentalism began to take on negative connotations after the early twentieth century. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey introduces the efforts of American Protestants to change popular perception by identifying once again as evangelicals.
The Roman Catholic Church underwent many changes throughout the latter half of the twentieth century. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey seeks to answer the question of whether these changes were substantive or merely cosmetic.
We live in an age that is marked by the revitalization of Islam, and as in all ages, the church must triumph. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey sketches the development of Islam, explaining its view of Christianity and providing its gospel remedy.
Evangelicalism is commonly used as a synonym for conservative Protestantism, but evangelicalism is its own brand of Protestant Christianity. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey examines the characteristics of evangelicalism and its dangers.
The modern-day church needs exactly what it has always needed: the Word of God preached faithfully. In this lesson, Dr. Godfrey situates the church in the twenty-first century, highlighting the essentials of Reformed Christianity as its only means of survival.